General Chemistry, 4e
Atoms First
by McQuarrie, Rock, Gallogly
ISBN: 9781891389603 | Copyright 2011
Instructor Requests
This Fourth Edition of McQuarrie’s classic text offers a thorough revision and a quantum-leap forward from the previous edition. Taking an atoms first approach, it promises to be another ground-breaking text in the tradition of McQuarrie’s many previous works. This outstanding new text, available in a soft cover edition, offers professors a fresh choice and outstanding value.
Published under the University Science Books imprint
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| Front Cover (pg. Inside Cover) | |
| General Chemistry (pg. Inside Cover) | |
| Contents in Brief (pg. v) | |
| Contents (pg. vi) | |
| Preface (pg. xi) | |
| NOTE TO THE INSTRUCTOR (pg. xvi) | |
| 1. Chemistry and the Scientific Method (pg. 1) | |
| 1-1. Why Should You Study Chemistry? (pg. 1) | |
| 1-2. Chemistry Is an Experimental Science (pg. 3) | |
| 1-3. Modern Chemistry Is Based on Quantitative Measurements (pg. 5) | |
| 1-4. The Metric System of Units and Standards Is Used in Scientific Work (pg. 7) | |
| 1-5. The SI Unit of Energy Is a Joule (pg. 13) | |
| 1-6. Percentage Error Can Be Used to Measure Accuracy (pg. 17) | |
| 1-7. The Precision of a Measured Quantity Is Indicated by the Number of Significant Figures (pg. 20) | |
| 1-8. Calculated Numerical Results Should Show the Correct Number of Significant Figures (pg. 22) | |
| 1-9 Dimensional Analysis Is Used to Simplify Many Types of Chemical Calculations (pg. 25) | |
| 1-10. The Guggenheim Notation Is Used to Label Table Headings and the Axes of Graphs (pg. 30) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 33) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 33) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 33) | |
| 2. Atoms and Molecules (pg. 41) | |
| 2-1. Elements Are the Simplest Substances (pg. 41) | |
| 2-2. The States of Matter Include Solids, Liquids, and Gases (pg. 44) | |
| 2-3. A Mixture Can Be Separated by Taking Advantage of the Different Physical Properties of Its Components (pg. 45) | |
| 2-4. The Law of Constant Composition States That the Relative Amount of Each Element in a Compound Is Always the Same (pg. 49) | |
| 2-5. Dalton’s Atomic Theory Explains the Law of Constant Composition (pg. 51) | |
| 2-6. Molecules Are Groups of Atoms Joined Together (pg. 54) | |
| 2-7. Compounds Are Named by an Orderly System of Chemical Nomenclature (pg. 55) | |
| 2-8. Molecular Mass Is the Sum of the Atomic Masses of the Atoms in a Molecule (pg. 57) | |
| 2-9. Most of the Mass of an Atom Is Concentrated in Its Nucleus (pg. 59) | |
| 2-10. Atoms Consist of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons (pg. 62) | |
| 2-11. Most Elements Occur in Nature as Mixtures of Isotopes (pg. 63) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 71) | |
| EQUATION YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 71) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 71) | |
| 3. The Periodic Table and Chemical Periodicity (pg. 79) | |
| 3-1. New Substances Are Formed in Chemical Reactions (pg. 79) | |
| 3-2. A Chemical Equation Must Be Balanced (pg. 81) | |
| 3-3. Elements Can Be Grouped According to Their Chemical Properties (pg. 85) | |
| 3-4. The Elements Show a Periodic Pattern When Listed in Order of Increasing Atomic Number (pg. 88) | |
| 3-5. Elements Assigned to the Same Column in the Periodic Table Have Similar Chemical Properties (pg. 90) | |
| 3-6. Elements Are Arranged as Main-Group Elements, Transition Metals, and Inner Transition Metals (pg. 94) | |
| 3-7. Periodic Trends Contain Some Irregularities (pg. 97) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 99) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 99) | |
| 4. Early Quantum Theory (pg. 105) | |
| 4-1. First Ionization Energy Is One of Many Periodic Properties of the Elements (pg. 105) | |
| 4-2. The Values of Successive Ionization Energies of Atoms Suggest a Shell Structure (pg. 107) | |
| 4-3. The Electromagnetic Spectrum Is Characterized by Radiation of Different Wavelengths (pg. 111) | |
| 4-4. The Emission Spectra of Atoms Consist of Series of Lines (pg. 113) | |
| 4-5. Electromagnetic Radiation Can Be Viewed as a Beam of Photons (pg. 116) | |
| 4-6. De Broglie Was the First to Propose That Matter Has Wavelike Properties (pg. 120) | |
| 4-7. Electrons Exhibit Both Particle-Like and Wavelike Properties (pg. 121) | |
| 4-8. The Energy of the Electron in a Hydrogen Atom Is Quantized (pg. 122) | |
| 4-9. Atoms Emit or Absorb Electromagnetic Radiation When They Undergo Transitions from One Stationary State to Another (pg. 123) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 130) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 131) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 131) | |
| 5. Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure (pg. 137) | |
| 5-1. The Schrödinger Equation Is the Central Equation of Quantum Theory (pg. 137) | |
| 5-2. The Shape of an Orbital Depends on the Value of the Azimuthal Quantum Number (pg. 141) | |
| 5-3. The Spatial Orientation of an Orbital Depends on the Value of the Magnetic Quantum Number (pg. 143) | |
| 5-4. An Electron Has an Intrinsic Spin (pg. 145) | |
| 5-5. The Energy States of Atoms with Two or More Electrons Depend on the Values of Both n and l (pg. 150) | |
| 5-6. The Pauli Exclusion Principle States That No Two Electrons in the Same Atom Can Have the Same Set of Four Quantum Numbers (pg. 151) | |
| 5-7. Electron Configurations Designate the Occupancy of Electrons in Atomic Orbitals (pg. 153) | |
| 5-8. Hund’s Rule Is Used to Predict Ground State Electron Configurations (pg. 154) | |
| 5-9. When an Atom Absorbs Electromagnetic Radiation, Electrons Are Promoted to Excited States (pg. 156) | |
| 5-10. Elements in the Same Column of the Periodic Table Have Similar Valence-Electron Configurations (pg. 157) | |
| 5-11. The Chemistry of Transition Metal Elements Depends upon Their d Orbital Electrons (pg. 160) | |
| 5-12. Atomic Radii and Ionization Energies Are Periodic Properties (pg. 162) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 164) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 165) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 165) | |
| 6. Ionic Bonds and Compounds (pg. 171) | |
| 6-1. The Electrostatic Force That Binds Oppositely Charged Ions Together Is Called an Ionic Bond (pg. 171) | |
| 6-2. Chemical Formulas of Ionic Compounds Are Based on Ionic Charge (pg. 176) | |
| 6-3. The Common Ionic Charges of Transition Metal Ions Can Be Understood in Terms of Electron Configurations (pg. 177) | |
| 6-4. The Ionic Charge of Transition Metal Ions with More Than One Common Ionic Charge Is Indicated by a Roman Numeral (pg. 179) | |
| 6-5. The Filling Order of Most Transition Metal Ions Is Regular (pg. 181) | |
| 6-6. Cations Are Smaller and Anions Are Larger Than Their Neutral Parent Atoms (pg. 182) | |
| 6-7. Coulomb’s Law Is Used to Calculate the Energy of an Ion Pair (pg. 184) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 191) | |
| AN EQUATION YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 191) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 191) | |
| 7. Lewis Formulas (pg. 197) | |
| 7-1. A Covalent Bond Can Be Described as a Pair of Electrons Shared by Two Atoms (pg. 197) | |
| 7-2. We Always Try to Satisfy the Octet Rule When Writing Lewis Formulas (pg. 198) | |
| 7-3. Hydrogen Atoms Are Almost Always Terminal Atoms in Lewis Formulas (pg. 202) | |
| 7-4. Formal Charges Can Be Assigned to Atoms in Lewis Formulas (pg. 205) | |
| 7-5. It Is Not Always Possible to Satisfy the Octet Rule Using Only Single Bonds (pg. 209) | |
| 7-6. A Resonance Hybrid Is a Superposition of Lewis Formulas (pg. 212) | |
| 7-7. A Species with One or More Unpaired Electrons Is Called a Free Radical (pg. 216) | |
| 7-8. Atoms of Elements Below the Second Row in the Periodic Table Can Expand Their Valence Shells (pg. 218) | |
| 7-9. Electronegativity Is a Periodic Property (pg. 222) | |
| 7-10. We Can Use Electronegativity Differences to Predict the Polarity of Chemical Bonds (pg. 224) | |
| 7-11. Polyatomic Molecules with Polar Bonds May Be Polar or Nonpolar (pg. 226) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 229) | |
| AN EQUATION YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 229) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 229) | |
| 8. Prediction of Molecular Geometries (pg. 235) | |
| 8-1. Lewis Formulas Do Not Give Us the Shapes of Molecules (pg. 235) | |
| 8-2. All Four Vertices of a Regular Tetrahedron Are Equivalent (pg. 236) | |
| 8-3. Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Theory Is Used to Predict the Shapes of Molecules (pg. 237) | |
| 8-4. The Number of Valence-Shell Electron Pairs Determines the Shape of a Molecule (pg. 239) | |
| 8-5. Lone Electron Pairs in the Valence Shell Affect the Shapes of Molecules (pg. 242) | |
| 8-6. VSEPR Theory Is Applicable to Molecules That Contain Multiple Bonds (pg. 244) | |
| 8-7. Lone-Pair Electrons Occupy the Equatorial Vertices of a Trigonal Bipyramid (pg. 249) | |
| 8-8. Two Lone Electron Pairs Occupy Opposite Vertices of an Octahedron (pg. 251) | |
| 8-9. Molecular Geometry Determines Whether or Not a Molecule Has a Net Dipole Moment (pg. 253) | |
| 8-10. Isomers Play a Major Role in Determining Odor, Taste, and Drug Action (pg. 255) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 260) | |
| AN EQUATION YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 260) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 260) | |
| 9. Covalent Bonding (pg. 267) | |
| 9-1. A Molecular Orbital Is a Combination of Atomic Orbitals on Different Atoms (pg. 267) | |
| 9-2. The Hydrogen Molecular Ion H2+ Is the Simplest Diatomic Species (pg. 268) | |
| 9-3. The Strength of a Covalent Bond Is Predicted by Its Bond Order (pg. 274) | |
| 9-4. Molecular Orbital Theory Predicts the Electron Configurations of Diatomic Molecules (pg. 275) | |
| 9-5. The Bonding in Polyatomic Molecules Can Be Described Using Localized Bonds (pg. 279) | |
| 9-6. sp2 Hybrid Orbitals Have Trigonal Planar Symmetry (pg. 282) | |
| 9-7. sp3 Hybrid Orbitals Point Toward the Vertices of a Tetrahedron (pg. 283) | |
| 9-8. sp3 Orbitals Can Describe Molecules with Four Electron Pairs About the Central Atom (pg. 286) | |
| 9-9. Hybrid Atomic Orbitals Can Involve d Orbitals (pg. 289) | |
| 9-10. A Double Bond Can Be Represented by a s Bond and a pi Bond (pg. 291) | |
| 9-12. A Triple Bond Can Be Represented by One s Bond and Two pi Bonds (pg. 295) | |
| 9-13. The pi Electrons in Benzene Are Delocalized (pg. 296) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 300) | |
| AN EQUATION YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 300) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 300) | |
| 10. Chemical Reactivity (pg. 307) | |
| 10-1. A Combination Reaction Is the Reaction of Two Substances to Form a Single Product (pg. 308) | |
| 10-2. Polyatomic Ions Remain Intact in Aqueous Solution (pg. 309) | |
| 10-3. Some Metal Oxides Yield Bases and Some Hydrogen -Containing Compounds Yield Acids When Combined with Water (pg. 314) | |
| 10-4. In a Decomposition Reaction, a Substance Is Broken Down into Two or More Less Complex Substances (pg. 320) | |
| 10-5. Hydrates Result from a Combination Reaction Between Water and an Anhydrous Salt (pg. 322) | |
| 10-6. In a Single-Replacement Reaction, One Elementin a Compound Is Replaced by Another (pg. 323) | |
| 10-7. Metals Can Be Ordered in Terms of Relative Activity Based on Single-Replacement Reactions (pg. 324) | |
| 10-8. The Relative Activity of the Halogens Is F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2 (pg. 327) | |
| 10-9. In a Double-Replacement Reaction, the Cations and Anions of Two Ionic Compounds Exchange to Form New Compounds (pg. 328) | |
| 10-10. An Acid-Base Reaction Is an Example of a Double-Replacement Reaction (pg. 332) | |
| 10-11. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Involve the Transfer of Electrons Between Species (pg. 335) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 339) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 340) | |
| 11. Chemical Calculations (pg. 349) | |
| 11-1. The Quantity of a Substance That is Equal to Its Formula Mass in Grams Is Called a Mole (pg. 349) | |
| 11-2. One Mole of Any Substance Contains Avogadro’s Number of Formula Units (pg. 353) | |
| 11-3. Simplest Formulas Can Be Determined by Chemical Analysis (pg. 356) | |
| 11-4. Empirical Formulas Can Be Used to Determine an Unknown Atomic Mass (pg. 360) | |
| 11-5. An Empirical Formula Along With the Molecular Mass Determines the Molecular Formula (pg. 361) | |
| 11-6. The Percentage Composition of Many Compounds Can Be Determined by Combustion Analysis (pg. 363) | |
| 11-7. The Coefficients in Chemical Equations Can Be Interpreted as Numbers of Moles (pg. 366) | |
| 11-8. Calculations Involving Chemical Reactions Are Carried Out in Terms of Moles (pg. 372) | |
| 11-9. It Is Not Always Necessary to Know the Chemical Equation to Carry Out Stoichiometric Calculations (pg. 375) | |
| 11-10. When Two or More Substances React, the Mass of the Product Is Determined by the Limiting Reactant (pg. 377) | |
| 11-11. For Many Chemical Reactions the Amount of the Desired Product Obtained Is Less Than the Theoretical Amount (pg. 380) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 383) | |
| AN EQUATION YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 383) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 384) | |
| 12. Chemical Calculations for Solutions (pg. 393) | |
| 12-1. A Solution Is a Homogeneous Mixture of Two or More Substances (pg. 393) | |
| 12-2. Molarity Is the Most Common Unit of Concentration (pg. 395) | |
| 12-3. Solutions That Contain Ions Conduct an Electric Current (pg. 399) | |
| 12-4. Molarity Is Used in Stoichiometric Calculations for Reactions That Take Place in Solution (pg. 404) | |
| 12-5. Molarity Can Be Used to Calculate Quantities in Precipitation Reactions (pg. 405) | |
| 12-6. The Concentration of an Acid or a Base Can Be Determined by Titration (pg. 408) | |
| 12-7. The Formula Mass of an Unknown Acid Can Be Determined from Titration Data (pg. 410) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 414) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 414) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 414) | |
| 13. Properties of Gases (pg. 421) | |
| 13-1. Most of the Volume of a Gas Is Empty Space (pg. 421) | |
| 13-2. A Manometer Can Be Used to Measure the Pressure of a Gas (pg. 422) | |
| 13-3. The SI Unit of Pressure Is the Pascal (pg. 424) | |
| 13-4. The Volume of a Gas Is Inversely Proportional to Its Pressure and Directly Proportional to Its Kelvin Temperature (pg. 426) | |
| 13-5. Equal Volumes of Gases at the Same Pressure and Temperature Contain Equal Numbers of Molecules (pg. 431) | |
| 13-6. The Ideal-Gas Equation Is a Combination of Boyle’s, Charles’s, and Avogadro’s Laws (pg. 432) | |
| 13-7. The Ideal-Gas Equation Can Be Used to Calculate the Molecular Masses of Gases (pg. 439) | |
| 13-8. The Total Pressure of a Mixture of Ideal Gases Is the Sum of the Partial Pressures of All the Gases in the Mixture (pg. 443) | |
| 13-9. The Molecules of a Gas Have a Distribution of Speeds (pg. 448) | |
| 13-10. The Kinetic Theory of Gases Allows Us to Calculate the Root-Mean-Square Speed of a Molecule (pg. 450) | |
| 13-11. We Can Use Effusion to Determine the Formula Mass of a Gas (pg. 453) | |
| 13-12. The Average Distance a Molecule Travels Between Collisions Is Called the Mean Free Path (pg. 455) | |
| 13-13. The van der Waals Equation Accounts for Deviations from Gas Ideality (pg. 457) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 460) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 460) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 461) | |
| 14. Thermochemistry (pg. 469) | |
| 14-1. The Transfer of Energy Between a Reaction System and Its Surroundings Occurs as Work or Heat (pg. 470) | |
| 14-2. Enthalpy Is a State Function (pg. 473) | |
| 14-3. The Difference Between the Values of DH°rxn and DU°r xn Is Usually Small (pg. 477) | |
| 14-4. Enthalpy Changes for Chemical Equations Are Additive (pg. 479) | |
| 14-5. Enthalpies of Reactions Can Be Calculated from Tabulated Molar Enthalpies of Formation (pg. 484) | |
| 14-6. The Value of ΔH°rxn Is Determined Primarily by the Difference in the Molar Bond Enthalpies of the Reactant and Product Molecules (pg. 492) | |
| 14-7. Heat Capacity Measures the Ability of a Substance to Take Up Energy as Heat (pg. 496) | |
| 14-8. A Calorimeter Is a Device Used to Measure the Amount of Energy Evolved or Absorbed as Heat in a Reaction (pg. 501) | |
| 14-9. The Energy of Reaction Can Be Measured in a Bomb Calorimeter (pg. 503) | |
| 14-10. The Magnitudes of Heat Capacities Have a Molecular Interpretation (pg. 505) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 507) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 508) | |
| Problems (pg. 509) | |
| 15. Liquids and Solids (pg. 519) | |
| 15-1. The Molecules in Solids and Liquids Are Close to One Another (pg. 519) | |
| 15-2. The Processes of Melting and Boiling Appear as Horizontal Lines on a Heating Curve (pg. 521) | |
| 15-3. Energy Is Required to Melt a Solid and to Vaporize a Liquid (pg. 522) | |
| 15-4. Van Der Waals Forces Are Attractive Forces Between Molecules (pg. 527) | |
| 15-5. Viscosity, Surface Tension, and Capillary Action Are Properties of Liquids (pg. 533) | |
| 15-6. A Liquid Has a Unique Equilibrium Vapor Pressure at Each Temperature (pg. 536) | |
| 15-7. Relative Humidity Is Based on the Vapor Pressure of Water (pg. 540) | |
| 15-8. A Phase Diagram Displays the Regions of All the Phases of a Pure Substance Simultaneously (pg. 541) | |
| 15-9. X-Ray Diffraction Patterns Yield Information About the Structures of Crystalline Solids (pg. 545) | |
| 15-10. Crystals Can Be Classified According to the Forces Between the Constituent Particles (pg. 551) | |
| 15-11. The Electrons in Metals Are Delocalized Throughout the Crystal (pg. 554) | |
| 15-12. Liquid Crystals Are Semifluid Arrangements of Molecules (pg. 555) | |
| 15-13. Colloidal Dispersions Do Not Separate upon Standing (pg. 557) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 561) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 561) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 562) | |
| 16. Colligative Properties of Solutions (pg. 569) | |
| 16-1. Solutes Affect the Properties of the Solvent (pg. 569) | |
| 16-2. The Equilibrium Partial Pressure of a Pure Liquid Always Decreases When a Substance Is Dissolved in the Liquid (pg. 573) | |
| 16-3. Nonvolatile Solutes Increase the Boiling Point of a Liquid (pg. 576) | |
| 16-4. Solutes Decrease the Freezing Point of a Liquid (pg. 579) | |
| 16-5. Osmotic Pressure Requires a Semipermeable Membrane (pg. 583) | |
| 16-6. The Components of an Ideal Solution Obey Raoult’s Law (pg. 587) | |
| 16-7. The Solubility of a Gas in a Liquid Is Directly Proportional to the Pressure of the Gas over the Liquid (pg. 590) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 593) | |
| EQUATION S YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 593) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 594) | |
| 17. Chemical Kinetics: Rate Laws (pg. 601) | |
| 17-1. A Rate of Concentration Change Tells Us How Fast a Quantity of Reactant or Product Is Changing with Time (pg. 601) | |
| 17-2. The Rate of Reaction Varies with Time (pg. 607) | |
| 17-3. The Rate Law of a Reaction Can Be Determined by the Method of Initial Rates (pg. 610) | |
| 17-4. A Plot of ln[A] Versus Time Gives a Straight Line for a First-Order Reaction (pg. 617) | |
| 17-5. The Half-Life for a First-Order Reaction Is Independent of the Initial Concentration (pg. 620) | |
| 17-6. The Rate of Decay of a Radioactive Isotope Is a First-Order Process (pg. 623) | |
| 17-7. Carbon-14 Can Be Used to Date Certain Archaeological Objects (pg. 628) | |
| 17-8. A Plot of 1/[A] Versus Time Is Linear for a Second-Order Reaction (pg. 630) | |
| 17-9. The Half-Life of a Second-Order Reaction Depends on the Initial Concentration (pg. 635) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 637) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 637) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 638) | |
| 18. Chemical Kinetics: Mechanisms (pg. 649) | |
| 18-1. Many Reactions Involve More Than One Step (pg. 649) | |
| 18-2. Reactants Must Surmount an Energy Barrier to React (pg. 652) | |
| 18-3. The Arrhenius Equation Describes the Temperature Dependence of a Reaction-Rate Constant (pg. 657) | |
| 18-4. Some Reaction Mechanisms Have a Rate-Determining Step (pg. 659) | |
| 18-5. Some Reaction Mechanisms Have a Fast Equilibrium Step (pg. 660) | |
| 18-6. A Catalyst Is a Substance That Increases the Reaction Rate but Is Not Consumed in the Reaction (pg. 663) | |
| 18-7. The Michaelis-Menten Equation Describes the Rates of Many Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions (pg. 668) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 673) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 674) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 674) | |
| 19. Chemical Equilibrium (pg. 685) | |
| 19-1. A Chemical Equilibrium Is a Dynamic Equilibrium (pg. 686) | |
| 19-2. A Chemical Equilibrium Can Be Attained from Either Direction (pg. 687) | |
| 19-3. The Equilibrium Constant for a Chemical Equation Is Equal to the Ratio of Product Concentration Terms to Reactant Concentration Terms (pg. 689) | |
| 19-4. Equilibrium Constants Can Be Expressed in Terms of Partial Pressures (pg. 695) | |
| 19-5. Equilibrium Constants Are Used in a Variety of Calculations (pg. 697) | |
| 19-6. Equilibrium Constants for Chemical Equations Can Be Combined to Obtain Equilibrium Constants for Other Equations (pg. 703) | |
| 19-7. Le Châtelier’s Principle Is Used to Predict the Direction of the Shift in a Chemical Reaction Displaced from Equilibrium (pg. 705) | |
| 19-8. Le Châtelier’s Principle Has a Quantitative Basis (pg. 712) | |
| 19-9. Chemical Reactions Always Proceed Toward Equilibrium (pg. 715) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 717) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 718) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 718) | |
| 20. The Properties of Acids and Bases (pg. 729) | |
| 20-1. An Acid Is a Proton Donor and a Base Is a Proton Acceptor (pg. 729) | |
| 20-2. In an Aqueous Solution the Product of the Ion Concentrations [H3O+] and [OH –] Is a Constant (pg. 731) | |
| 20-3. Strong Acids and Strong Bases Are Completely Dissociated in Aqueous Solutions (pg. 732) | |
| 20-4. Almost All Organic Acids Are Weak Acids (pg. 735) | |
| 20-5. pH Is a Measure of the Acidity of an Aqueous Solution (pg. 738) | |
| 20-6. Weak Acids and Weak Bases Are Dissociated Only Partially in Water (pg. 742) | |
| 20-7. Acids with Large Values of Ka Are Stronger than Acids with Smaller Values of Ka (pg. 743) | |
| 20-8. The Method of Successive Approximations Is Often Used in Solving Acid-Base Equilibrium Problems (pg. 748) | |
| 20-9. Bases with Large Values of Kb Are Stronger than Bases with Smaller Values of Kb (pg. 750) | |
| 20-10. The Pair of Species HA(aq), A–(aq) Is Called a Conjugate Acid-Base Pair (pg. 754) | |
| 20-11. Aqueous Solutions of Many Salts Are Either Acidic or Basic (pg. 758) | |
| 20-12. A Polyprotic Acid Can Donate More Than One Proton in Solution (pg. 764) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 768) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 769) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 770) | |
| 21. Buffers and the Titration ofAcids and Bases (pg. 777) | |
| 21-1. The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation Often Can Be Used to Calculate the pH of a Buffer Solution (pg. 777) | |
| 21-2. A Buffer Solution Suppresses a Change in pH When a Small Amount of Either an Acid or a Base Is Added (pg. 781) | |
| 21-3. An Indicator Is Used to Signal the End Point of a Titration (pg. 786) | |
| 21-4. The pH Changes Abruptly at the Equivalence Point of the Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base (pg. 791) | |
| 21-5. Weak Acids Can Be Titrated with Strong Bases (pg. 794) | |
| 21-6. pH = pKa at the Midpoint in the Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base (pg. 796) | |
| 21-7. Weak Bases Can Be Titrated with Strong Acids (pg. 802) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 807) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 807) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 807) | |
| 22. Solubility and Precipitation Reactions (pg. 815) | |
| 22-1. The Solubility of an Ionic Solid Can Be Determined Using the Equilibrium -Constant Expression (pg. 815) | |
| 22-2. The Solubility of an Ionic Solid Decreases When a Common Ion Is Present in the Solution (pg. 821) | |
| 22-3. The Solubility of an Ionic Solid Is Increased by the Formation of a Soluble Complex Ion (pg. 823) | |
| 22-4. Salts of Weak Acids Are More Soluble in Acidic Solutions Than in Neutral or Basic Solutions (pg. 828) | |
| 22-5. The Relative Magnitudes of Qsp and Ksp Can Be Used to Predict Whether an Ionic Solid Can Precipitate (pg. 830) | |
| 22-6. It Is Often Possible to Separate One Compound from Another by Selective Precipitation (pg. 833) | |
| 22-7. Amphoteric Metal Hydroxides Dissolve in Both Highly Acidic and Highly Basic Solutions (pg. 835) | |
| 22-8. Qualitative Analysis Is the Identification of the Species Present in a Sample (pg. 838) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 845) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 845) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 845) | |
| 23. Chemical Thermodynamics (pg. 853) | |
| 23-1. Not All Spontaneous Reactions Evolve Energy (pg. 853) | |
| 23-2. The Second Law of Thermodynamics Places an Additional Restriction on Energy Transfers (pg. 856) | |
| 23-3. Entropy May Be Considered as a Measure of the Amount of Disorder or Randomness in a System (pg. 860) | |
| 23-4. Molar Entropy Depends upon Molar Mass and Molecular Structure (pg. 865) | |
| 23-5. DS°rxn Equals the Standard Entropy of the Products Minus the Standard Entropy of the Reactants (pg. 868) | |
| 23-6. The Sign of DGrxn Determines Reaction Spontaneity (pg. 869) | |
| 23-7. The Reaction Quotient, Equilibrium Constant, and DG°rxn Are Related (pg. 873) | |
| 23-8. The Values of DGrxn and DG°rxn Are Related (pg. 875) | |
| 23-9. DG°rxn Values and Equilibrium Constants Can Be Calculated from Tabulated DG°f Values (pg. 880) | |
| 23-10. The van’t Hoff Equation Governs the Temperature Dependence of Equilibrium Constants (pg. 883) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 887) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 888) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 889) | |
| 24. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (pg. 899) | |
| 24-1. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Involve the Transfer of Electrons Between Species (pg. 899) | |
| 24-2. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Involve the Transfer of Electrons from One Reactant to Another (pg. 906) | |
| 24-3. Electron-Transfer Reactions Can Be Separated into Two Half Reactions (pg. 908) | |
| 24-4. Equations for Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Can Be Balanced by Balancing Each Half Reaction Separately (pg. 909) | |
| 24-5. Chemical Equations for Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Occurring in Basic Solution Are Balanced Using OH– and H2O (pg. 914) | |
| 24-6. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Are Used in Chemical Analysis (pg. 917) | |
| 24-7. Billions of Dollars Are Spent Each Year to Protect Metals from Corrosion (pg. 920) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 923) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 923) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 923) | |
| 25. Electrochemistry (pg. 931) | |
| 25-1. Chemical Reactions Can Occur as a Result of the Passage of an Electric Current Through a Solution (pg. 931) | |
| 25-2. An Electrochemical Cell Produces Electricity Directly from a Chemical Reaction (pg. 934) | |
| 25-3. A Cell Diagram Is Used to Represent an Electrochemical Cell (pg. 938) | |
| 25-4. The Nernst Equation Can Be Used to Determine the Cell Voltage for a Stated Reaction (pg. 941) | |
| 25-5. E°red Values Can Be Assigned to Half-Reaction Equations (pg. 946) | |
| 25-6. Electrochemical Cells Can Be Used to Determine the Concentration of Ions (pg. 952) | |
| 25-7. The Electrical Energy Released from an Electrochemical Cell Can Do Useful Work (pg. 957) | |
| 25-8. Electrolysis Is Described Quantitatively by Faraday’s Laws (pg. 960) | |
| 25-9. Many Chemicals Are Prepared on an Industrial Scale by Electrolysis (pg. 964) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 968) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 968) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 969) | |
| 26. The Chemistry of the Transition Metals (pg. 979) | |
| 26-1. The Maximum Oxidation States of Scandium Through Manganese Are Equal to the Total Number of 4s and 3d Electrons (pg. 980) | |
| 26-2. The +6 Oxidation State of Chromium and the +7 Oxidation State of Manganese Are Strongly Oxidizing (pg. 984) | |
| 26-3. Iron Is Produced in a Blast Furnace (pg. 986) | |
| 26-4. The +2 Oxidation State Is the Most Important Oxidation State for Cobalt, Nickel, Copper, and Zinc (pg. 989) | |
| 26-5. Gold, Silver, and Mercury Have Been Known Since Ancient Times (pg. 992) | |
| 26-6. Each d-Block Transition Metal Ion Has a Characteristic Number of d Electrons (pg. 995) | |
| 26-7. Transition Metal Complexes Consist of Central Metal Atoms or Ions That Are Bonded to Ligands (pg. 997) | |
| 26-8. Transition Metal Complexes Have a Systematic Nomenclature (pg. 1000) | |
| 26-9. Polydentate Ligands Bind to More Than One Coordination Position Around the Metal Ion (pg. 1003) | |
| 26-10. Some Octahedral and Square Planar Transition Metal Complexes Can Exist in Isomeric Forms (pg. 1005) | |
| 26-11. The Five d Orbitals of a Transition Metal Ion in an Octahedral Complex Are Split into Two Groups by the Ligands (pg. 1008) | |
| 26-12. d-Orbital Electron Configuration Is the Key to Understanding Many Properties of the d-Block Transition Metal Ions (pg. 1013) | |
| 26-13. Ligands Can Be Ordered According to Their Ability to Split the Transition Metal d Orbitals (pg. 1015) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 1017) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 1017) | |
| Appendices (pg. 1022) | |
| APPENDIX A: A Mathematical Review (pg. 1022) | |
| APPENDIX B: SI Units and Conversion Factors (pg. 1036) | |
| APPENDIX C: Summary of IUPAC Nomenclature Rules (pg. 1040) | |
| APPENDIX D: Thermodynamic Data (pg. 1044) | |
| APPENDIX E: Data for Selected Acids and Bases (pg. 1050) | |
| APPENDIX F: Solubility of Ionic Compounds (pg. 1053) | |
| APPENDIX G: Standard Reduction Voltages for Aqueous Solutions at 25.0°C* (pg. 1055) | |
| APPENDIX H: World Chemical Production (pg. 1059) | |
| Appendix I: Answers to Selected Even-Numbered Problems (pg. 1061) | |
| PHOTO CREDITS (pg. 1084) | |
| INDEX (pg. 1088) | |
| Front Cover (pg. Inside Cover) | |
| General Chemistry (pg. Inside Cover) | |
| Contents in Brief (pg. v) | |
| Contents (pg. vi) | |
| Preface (pg. xi) | |
| NOTE TO THE INSTRUCTOR (pg. xvi) | |
| 1. Chemistry and the Scientific Method (pg. 1) | |
| 1-1. Why Should You Study Chemistry? (pg. 1) | |
| 1-2. Chemistry Is an Experimental Science (pg. 3) | |
| 1-3. Modern Chemistry Is Based on Quantitative Measurements (pg. 5) | |
| 1-4. The Metric System of Units and Standards Is Used in Scientific Work (pg. 7) | |
| 1-5. The SI Unit of Energy Is a Joule (pg. 13) | |
| 1-6. Percentage Error Can Be Used to Measure Accuracy (pg. 17) | |
| 1-7. The Precision of a Measured Quantity Is Indicated by the Number of Significant Figures (pg. 20) | |
| 1-8. Calculated Numerical Results Should Show the Correct Number of Significant Figures (pg. 22) | |
| 1-9 Dimensional Analysis Is Used to Simplify Many Types of Chemical Calculations (pg. 25) | |
| 1-10. The Guggenheim Notation Is Used to Label Table Headings and the Axes of Graphs (pg. 30) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 33) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 33) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 33) | |
| 2. Atoms and Molecules (pg. 41) | |
| 2-1. Elements Are the Simplest Substances (pg. 41) | |
| 2-2. The States of Matter Include Solids, Liquids, and Gases (pg. 44) | |
| 2-3. A Mixture Can Be Separated by Taking Advantage of the Different Physical Properties of Its Components (pg. 45) | |
| 2-4. The Law of Constant Composition States That the Relative Amount of Each Element in a Compound Is Always the Same (pg. 49) | |
| 2-5. Dalton’s Atomic Theory Explains the Law of Constant Composition (pg. 51) | |
| 2-6. Molecules Are Groups of Atoms Joined Together (pg. 54) | |
| 2-7. Compounds Are Named by an Orderly System of Chemical Nomenclature (pg. 55) | |
| 2-8. Molecular Mass Is the Sum of the Atomic Masses of the Atoms in a Molecule (pg. 57) | |
| 2-9. Most of the Mass of an Atom Is Concentrated in Its Nucleus (pg. 59) | |
| 2-10. Atoms Consist of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons (pg. 62) | |
| 2-11. Most Elements Occur in Nature as Mixtures of Isotopes (pg. 63) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 71) | |
| EQUATION YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 71) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 71) | |
| 3. The Periodic Table and Chemical Periodicity (pg. 79) | |
| 3-1. New Substances Are Formed in Chemical Reactions (pg. 79) | |
| 3-2. A Chemical Equation Must Be Balanced (pg. 81) | |
| 3-3. Elements Can Be Grouped According to Their Chemical Properties (pg. 85) | |
| 3-4. The Elements Show a Periodic Pattern When Listed in Order of Increasing Atomic Number (pg. 88) | |
| 3-5. Elements Assigned to the Same Column in the Periodic Table Have Similar Chemical Properties (pg. 90) | |
| 3-6. Elements Are Arranged as Main-Group Elements, Transition Metals, and Inner Transition Metals (pg. 94) | |
| 3-7. Periodic Trends Contain Some Irregularities (pg. 97) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 99) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 99) | |
| 4. Early Quantum Theory (pg. 105) | |
| 4-1. First Ionization Energy Is One of Many Periodic Properties of the Elements (pg. 105) | |
| 4-2. The Values of Successive Ionization Energies of Atoms Suggest a Shell Structure (pg. 107) | |
| 4-3. The Electromagnetic Spectrum Is Characterized by Radiation of Different Wavelengths (pg. 111) | |
| 4-4. The Emission Spectra of Atoms Consist of Series of Lines (pg. 113) | |
| 4-5. Electromagnetic Radiation Can Be Viewed as a Beam of Photons (pg. 116) | |
| 4-6. De Broglie Was the First to Propose That Matter Has Wavelike Properties (pg. 120) | |
| 4-7. Electrons Exhibit Both Particle-Like and Wavelike Properties (pg. 121) | |
| 4-8. The Energy of the Electron in a Hydrogen Atom Is Quantized (pg. 122) | |
| 4-9. Atoms Emit or Absorb Electromagnetic Radiation When They Undergo Transitions from One Stationary State to Another (pg. 123) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 130) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 131) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 131) | |
| 5. Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure (pg. 137) | |
| 5-1. The Schrödinger Equation Is the Central Equation of Quantum Theory (pg. 137) | |
| 5-2. The Shape of an Orbital Depends on the Value of the Azimuthal Quantum Number (pg. 141) | |
| 5-3. The Spatial Orientation of an Orbital Depends on the Value of the Magnetic Quantum Number (pg. 143) | |
| 5-4. An Electron Has an Intrinsic Spin (pg. 145) | |
| 5-5. The Energy States of Atoms with Two or More Electrons Depend on the Values of Both n and l (pg. 150) | |
| 5-6. The Pauli Exclusion Principle States That No Two Electrons in the Same Atom Can Have the Same Set of Four Quantum Numbers (pg. 151) | |
| 5-7. Electron Configurations Designate the Occupancy of Electrons in Atomic Orbitals (pg. 153) | |
| 5-8. Hund’s Rule Is Used to Predict Ground State Electron Configurations (pg. 154) | |
| 5-9. When an Atom Absorbs Electromagnetic Radiation, Electrons Are Promoted to Excited States (pg. 156) | |
| 5-10. Elements in the Same Column of the Periodic Table Have Similar Valence-Electron Configurations (pg. 157) | |
| 5-11. The Chemistry of Transition Metal Elements Depends upon Their d Orbital Electrons (pg. 160) | |
| 5-12. Atomic Radii and Ionization Energies Are Periodic Properties (pg. 162) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 164) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 165) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 165) | |
| 6. Ionic Bonds and Compounds (pg. 171) | |
| 6-1. The Electrostatic Force That Binds Oppositely Charged Ions Together Is Called an Ionic Bond (pg. 171) | |
| 6-2. Chemical Formulas of Ionic Compounds Are Based on Ionic Charge (pg. 176) | |
| 6-3. The Common Ionic Charges of Transition Metal Ions Can Be Understood in Terms of Electron Configurations (pg. 177) | |
| 6-4. The Ionic Charge of Transition Metal Ions with More Than One Common Ionic Charge Is Indicated by a Roman Numeral (pg. 179) | |
| 6-5. The Filling Order of Most Transition Metal Ions Is Regular (pg. 181) | |
| 6-6. Cations Are Smaller and Anions Are Larger Than Their Neutral Parent Atoms (pg. 182) | |
| 6-7. Coulomb’s Law Is Used to Calculate the Energy of an Ion Pair (pg. 184) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 191) | |
| AN EQUATION YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 191) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 191) | |
| 7. Lewis Formulas (pg. 197) | |
| 7-1. A Covalent Bond Can Be Described as a Pair of Electrons Shared by Two Atoms (pg. 197) | |
| 7-2. We Always Try to Satisfy the Octet Rule When Writing Lewis Formulas (pg. 198) | |
| 7-3. Hydrogen Atoms Are Almost Always Terminal Atoms in Lewis Formulas (pg. 202) | |
| 7-4. Formal Charges Can Be Assigned to Atoms in Lewis Formulas (pg. 205) | |
| 7-5. It Is Not Always Possible to Satisfy the Octet Rule Using Only Single Bonds (pg. 209) | |
| 7-6. A Resonance Hybrid Is a Superposition of Lewis Formulas (pg. 212) | |
| 7-7. A Species with One or More Unpaired Electrons Is Called a Free Radical (pg. 216) | |
| 7-8. Atoms of Elements Below the Second Row in the Periodic Table Can Expand Their Valence Shells (pg. 218) | |
| 7-9. Electronegativity Is a Periodic Property (pg. 222) | |
| 7-10. We Can Use Electronegativity Differences to Predict the Polarity of Chemical Bonds (pg. 224) | |
| 7-11. Polyatomic Molecules with Polar Bonds May Be Polar or Nonpolar (pg. 226) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 229) | |
| AN EQUATION YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 229) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 229) | |
| 8. Prediction of Molecular Geometries (pg. 235) | |
| 8-1. Lewis Formulas Do Not Give Us the Shapes of Molecules (pg. 235) | |
| 8-2. All Four Vertices of a Regular Tetrahedron Are Equivalent (pg. 236) | |
| 8-3. Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Theory Is Used to Predict the Shapes of Molecules (pg. 237) | |
| 8-4. The Number of Valence-Shell Electron Pairs Determines the Shape of a Molecule (pg. 239) | |
| 8-5. Lone Electron Pairs in the Valence Shell Affect the Shapes of Molecules (pg. 242) | |
| 8-6. VSEPR Theory Is Applicable to Molecules That Contain Multiple Bonds (pg. 244) | |
| 8-7. Lone-Pair Electrons Occupy the Equatorial Vertices of a Trigonal Bipyramid (pg. 249) | |
| 8-8. Two Lone Electron Pairs Occupy Opposite Vertices of an Octahedron (pg. 251) | |
| 8-9. Molecular Geometry Determines Whether or Not a Molecule Has a Net Dipole Moment (pg. 253) | |
| 8-10. Isomers Play a Major Role in Determining Odor, Taste, and Drug Action (pg. 255) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 260) | |
| AN EQUATION YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 260) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 260) | |
| 9. Covalent Bonding (pg. 267) | |
| 9-1. A Molecular Orbital Is a Combination of Atomic Orbitals on Different Atoms (pg. 267) | |
| 9-2. The Hydrogen Molecular Ion H2+ Is the Simplest Diatomic Species (pg. 268) | |
| 9-3. The Strength of a Covalent Bond Is Predicted by Its Bond Order (pg. 274) | |
| 9-4. Molecular Orbital Theory Predicts the Electron Configurations of Diatomic Molecules (pg. 275) | |
| 9-5. The Bonding in Polyatomic Molecules Can Be Described Using Localized Bonds (pg. 279) | |
| 9-6. sp2 Hybrid Orbitals Have Trigonal Planar Symmetry (pg. 282) | |
| 9-7. sp3 Hybrid Orbitals Point Toward the Vertices of a Tetrahedron (pg. 283) | |
| 9-8. sp3 Orbitals Can Describe Molecules with Four Electron Pairs About the Central Atom (pg. 286) | |
| 9-9. Hybrid Atomic Orbitals Can Involve d Orbitals (pg. 289) | |
| 9-10. A Double Bond Can Be Represented by a s Bond and a pi Bond (pg. 291) | |
| 9-12. A Triple Bond Can Be Represented by One s Bond and Two pi Bonds (pg. 295) | |
| 9-13. The pi Electrons in Benzene Are Delocalized (pg. 296) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 300) | |
| AN EQUATION YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 300) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 300) | |
| 10. Chemical Reactivity (pg. 307) | |
| 10-1. A Combination Reaction Is the Reaction of Two Substances to Form a Single Product (pg. 308) | |
| 10-2. Polyatomic Ions Remain Intact in Aqueous Solution (pg. 309) | |
| 10-3. Some Metal Oxides Yield Bases and Some Hydrogen -Containing Compounds Yield Acids When Combined with Water (pg. 314) | |
| 10-4. In a Decomposition Reaction, a Substance Is Broken Down into Two or More Less Complex Substances (pg. 320) | |
| 10-5. Hydrates Result from a Combination Reaction Between Water and an Anhydrous Salt (pg. 322) | |
| 10-6. In a Single-Replacement Reaction, One Elementin a Compound Is Replaced by Another (pg. 323) | |
| 10-7. Metals Can Be Ordered in Terms of Relative Activity Based on Single-Replacement Reactions (pg. 324) | |
| 10-8. The Relative Activity of the Halogens Is F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2 (pg. 327) | |
| 10-9. In a Double-Replacement Reaction, the Cations and Anions of Two Ionic Compounds Exchange to Form New Compounds (pg. 328) | |
| 10-10. An Acid-Base Reaction Is an Example of a Double-Replacement Reaction (pg. 332) | |
| 10-11. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Involve the Transfer of Electrons Between Species (pg. 335) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 339) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 340) | |
| 11. Chemical Calculations (pg. 349) | |
| 11-1. The Quantity of a Substance That is Equal to Its Formula Mass in Grams Is Called a Mole (pg. 349) | |
| 11-2. One Mole of Any Substance Contains Avogadro’s Number of Formula Units (pg. 353) | |
| 11-3. Simplest Formulas Can Be Determined by Chemical Analysis (pg. 356) | |
| 11-4. Empirical Formulas Can Be Used to Determine an Unknown Atomic Mass (pg. 360) | |
| 11-5. An Empirical Formula Along With the Molecular Mass Determines the Molecular Formula (pg. 361) | |
| 11-6. The Percentage Composition of Many Compounds Can Be Determined by Combustion Analysis (pg. 363) | |
| 11-7. The Coefficients in Chemical Equations Can Be Interpreted as Numbers of Moles (pg. 366) | |
| 11-8. Calculations Involving Chemical Reactions Are Carried Out in Terms of Moles (pg. 372) | |
| 11-9. It Is Not Always Necessary to Know the Chemical Equation to Carry Out Stoichiometric Calculations (pg. 375) | |
| 11-10. When Two or More Substances React, the Mass of the Product Is Determined by the Limiting Reactant (pg. 377) | |
| 11-11. For Many Chemical Reactions the Amount of the Desired Product Obtained Is Less Than the Theoretical Amount (pg. 380) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 383) | |
| AN EQUATION YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 383) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 384) | |
| 12. Chemical Calculations for Solutions (pg. 393) | |
| 12-1. A Solution Is a Homogeneous Mixture of Two or More Substances (pg. 393) | |
| 12-2. Molarity Is the Most Common Unit of Concentration (pg. 395) | |
| 12-3. Solutions That Contain Ions Conduct an Electric Current (pg. 399) | |
| 12-4. Molarity Is Used in Stoichiometric Calculations for Reactions That Take Place in Solution (pg. 404) | |
| 12-5. Molarity Can Be Used to Calculate Quantities in Precipitation Reactions (pg. 405) | |
| 12-6. The Concentration of an Acid or a Base Can Be Determined by Titration (pg. 408) | |
| 12-7. The Formula Mass of an Unknown Acid Can Be Determined from Titration Data (pg. 410) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 414) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 414) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 414) | |
| 13. Properties of Gases (pg. 421) | |
| 13-1. Most of the Volume of a Gas Is Empty Space (pg. 421) | |
| 13-2. A Manometer Can Be Used to Measure the Pressure of a Gas (pg. 422) | |
| 13-3. The SI Unit of Pressure Is the Pascal (pg. 424) | |
| 13-4. The Volume of a Gas Is Inversely Proportional to Its Pressure and Directly Proportional to Its Kelvin Temperature (pg. 426) | |
| 13-5. Equal Volumes of Gases at the Same Pressure and Temperature Contain Equal Numbers of Molecules (pg. 431) | |
| 13-6. The Ideal-Gas Equation Is a Combination of Boyle’s, Charles’s, and Avogadro’s Laws (pg. 432) | |
| 13-7. The Ideal-Gas Equation Can Be Used to Calculate the Molecular Masses of Gases (pg. 439) | |
| 13-8. The Total Pressure of a Mixture of Ideal Gases Is the Sum of the Partial Pressures of All the Gases in the Mixture (pg. 443) | |
| 13-9. The Molecules of a Gas Have a Distribution of Speeds (pg. 448) | |
| 13-10. The Kinetic Theory of Gases Allows Us to Calculate the Root-Mean-Square Speed of a Molecule (pg. 450) | |
| 13-11. We Can Use Effusion to Determine the Formula Mass of a Gas (pg. 453) | |
| 13-12. The Average Distance a Molecule Travels Between Collisions Is Called the Mean Free Path (pg. 455) | |
| 13-13. The van der Waals Equation Accounts for Deviations from Gas Ideality (pg. 457) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 460) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 460) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 461) | |
| 14. Thermochemistry (pg. 469) | |
| 14-1. The Transfer of Energy Between a Reaction System and Its Surroundings Occurs as Work or Heat (pg. 470) | |
| 14-2. Enthalpy Is a State Function (pg. 473) | |
| 14-3. The Difference Between the Values of DH°rxn and DU°r xn Is Usually Small (pg. 477) | |
| 14-4. Enthalpy Changes for Chemical Equations Are Additive (pg. 479) | |
| 14-5. Enthalpies of Reactions Can Be Calculated from Tabulated Molar Enthalpies of Formation (pg. 484) | |
| 14-6. The Value of ΔH°rxn Is Determined Primarily by the Difference in the Molar Bond Enthalpies of the Reactant and Product Molecules (pg. 492) | |
| 14-7. Heat Capacity Measures the Ability of a Substance to Take Up Energy as Heat (pg. 496) | |
| 14-8. A Calorimeter Is a Device Used to Measure the Amount of Energy Evolved or Absorbed as Heat in a Reaction (pg. 501) | |
| 14-9. The Energy of Reaction Can Be Measured in a Bomb Calorimeter (pg. 503) | |
| 14-10. The Magnitudes of Heat Capacities Have a Molecular Interpretation (pg. 505) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 507) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 508) | |
| Problems (pg. 509) | |
| 15. Liquids and Solids (pg. 519) | |
| 15-1. The Molecules in Solids and Liquids Are Close to One Another (pg. 519) | |
| 15-2. The Processes of Melting and Boiling Appear as Horizontal Lines on a Heating Curve (pg. 521) | |
| 15-3. Energy Is Required to Melt a Solid and to Vaporize a Liquid (pg. 522) | |
| 15-4. Van Der Waals Forces Are Attractive Forces Between Molecules (pg. 527) | |
| 15-5. Viscosity, Surface Tension, and Capillary Action Are Properties of Liquids (pg. 533) | |
| 15-6. A Liquid Has a Unique Equilibrium Vapor Pressure at Each Temperature (pg. 536) | |
| 15-7. Relative Humidity Is Based on the Vapor Pressure of Water (pg. 540) | |
| 15-8. A Phase Diagram Displays the Regions of All the Phases of a Pure Substance Simultaneously (pg. 541) | |
| 15-9. X-Ray Diffraction Patterns Yield Information About the Structures of Crystalline Solids (pg. 545) | |
| 15-10. Crystals Can Be Classified According to the Forces Between the Constituent Particles (pg. 551) | |
| 15-11. The Electrons in Metals Are Delocalized Throughout the Crystal (pg. 554) | |
| 15-12. Liquid Crystals Are Semifluid Arrangements of Molecules (pg. 555) | |
| 15-13. Colloidal Dispersions Do Not Separate upon Standing (pg. 557) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 561) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 561) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 562) | |
| 16. Colligative Properties of Solutions (pg. 569) | |
| 16-1. Solutes Affect the Properties of the Solvent (pg. 569) | |
| 16-2. The Equilibrium Partial Pressure of a Pure Liquid Always Decreases When a Substance Is Dissolved in the Liquid (pg. 573) | |
| 16-3. Nonvolatile Solutes Increase the Boiling Point of a Liquid (pg. 576) | |
| 16-4. Solutes Decrease the Freezing Point of a Liquid (pg. 579) | |
| 16-5. Osmotic Pressure Requires a Semipermeable Membrane (pg. 583) | |
| 16-6. The Components of an Ideal Solution Obey Raoult’s Law (pg. 587) | |
| 16-7. The Solubility of a Gas in a Liquid Is Directly Proportional to the Pressure of the Gas over the Liquid (pg. 590) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 593) | |
| EQUATION S YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 593) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 594) | |
| 17. Chemical Kinetics: Rate Laws (pg. 601) | |
| 17-1. A Rate of Concentration Change Tells Us How Fast a Quantity of Reactant or Product Is Changing with Time (pg. 601) | |
| 17-2. The Rate of Reaction Varies with Time (pg. 607) | |
| 17-3. The Rate Law of a Reaction Can Be Determined by the Method of Initial Rates (pg. 610) | |
| 17-4. A Plot of ln[A] Versus Time Gives a Straight Line for a First-Order Reaction (pg. 617) | |
| 17-5. The Half-Life for a First-Order Reaction Is Independent of the Initial Concentration (pg. 620) | |
| 17-6. The Rate of Decay of a Radioactive Isotope Is a First-Order Process (pg. 623) | |
| 17-7. Carbon-14 Can Be Used to Date Certain Archaeological Objects (pg. 628) | |
| 17-8. A Plot of 1/[A] Versus Time Is Linear for a Second-Order Reaction (pg. 630) | |
| 17-9. The Half-Life of a Second-Order Reaction Depends on the Initial Concentration (pg. 635) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 637) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 637) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 638) | |
| 18. Chemical Kinetics: Mechanisms (pg. 649) | |
| 18-1. Many Reactions Involve More Than One Step (pg. 649) | |
| 18-2. Reactants Must Surmount an Energy Barrier to React (pg. 652) | |
| 18-3. The Arrhenius Equation Describes the Temperature Dependence of a Reaction-Rate Constant (pg. 657) | |
| 18-4. Some Reaction Mechanisms Have a Rate-Determining Step (pg. 659) | |
| 18-5. Some Reaction Mechanisms Have a Fast Equilibrium Step (pg. 660) | |
| 18-6. A Catalyst Is a Substance That Increases the Reaction Rate but Is Not Consumed in the Reaction (pg. 663) | |
| 18-7. The Michaelis-Menten Equation Describes the Rates of Many Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions (pg. 668) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 673) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 674) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 674) | |
| 19. Chemical Equilibrium (pg. 685) | |
| 19-1. A Chemical Equilibrium Is a Dynamic Equilibrium (pg. 686) | |
| 19-2. A Chemical Equilibrium Can Be Attained from Either Direction (pg. 687) | |
| 19-3. The Equilibrium Constant for a Chemical Equation Is Equal to the Ratio of Product Concentration Terms to Reactant Concentration Terms (pg. 689) | |
| 19-4. Equilibrium Constants Can Be Expressed in Terms of Partial Pressures (pg. 695) | |
| 19-5. Equilibrium Constants Are Used in a Variety of Calculations (pg. 697) | |
| 19-6. Equilibrium Constants for Chemical Equations Can Be Combined to Obtain Equilibrium Constants for Other Equations (pg. 703) | |
| 19-7. Le Châtelier’s Principle Is Used to Predict the Direction of the Shift in a Chemical Reaction Displaced from Equilibrium (pg. 705) | |
| 19-8. Le Châtelier’s Principle Has a Quantitative Basis (pg. 712) | |
| 19-9. Chemical Reactions Always Proceed Toward Equilibrium (pg. 715) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 717) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 718) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 718) | |
| 20. The Properties of Acids and Bases (pg. 729) | |
| 20-1. An Acid Is a Proton Donor and a Base Is a Proton Acceptor (pg. 729) | |
| 20-2. In an Aqueous Solution the Product of the Ion Concentrations [H3O+] and [OH –] Is a Constant (pg. 731) | |
| 20-3. Strong Acids and Strong Bases Are Completely Dissociated in Aqueous Solutions (pg. 732) | |
| 20-4. Almost All Organic Acids Are Weak Acids (pg. 735) | |
| 20-5. pH Is a Measure of the Acidity of an Aqueous Solution (pg. 738) | |
| 20-6. Weak Acids and Weak Bases Are Dissociated Only Partially in Water (pg. 742) | |
| 20-7. Acids with Large Values of Ka Are Stronger than Acids with Smaller Values of Ka (pg. 743) | |
| 20-8. The Method of Successive Approximations Is Often Used in Solving Acid-Base Equilibrium Problems (pg. 748) | |
| 20-9. Bases with Large Values of Kb Are Stronger than Bases with Smaller Values of Kb (pg. 750) | |
| 20-10. The Pair of Species HA(aq), A–(aq) Is Called a Conjugate Acid-Base Pair (pg. 754) | |
| 20-11. Aqueous Solutions of Many Salts Are Either Acidic or Basic (pg. 758) | |
| 20-12. A Polyprotic Acid Can Donate More Than One Proton in Solution (pg. 764) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 768) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 769) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 770) | |
| 21. Buffers and the Titration ofAcids and Bases (pg. 777) | |
| 21-1. The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation Often Can Be Used to Calculate the pH of a Buffer Solution (pg. 777) | |
| 21-2. A Buffer Solution Suppresses a Change in pH When a Small Amount of Either an Acid or a Base Is Added (pg. 781) | |
| 21-3. An Indicator Is Used to Signal the End Point of a Titration (pg. 786) | |
| 21-4. The pH Changes Abruptly at the Equivalence Point of the Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base (pg. 791) | |
| 21-5. Weak Acids Can Be Titrated with Strong Bases (pg. 794) | |
| 21-6. pH = pKa at the Midpoint in the Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base (pg. 796) | |
| 21-7. Weak Bases Can Be Titrated with Strong Acids (pg. 802) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 807) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 807) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 807) | |
| 22. Solubility and Precipitation Reactions (pg. 815) | |
| 22-1. The Solubility of an Ionic Solid Can Be Determined Using the Equilibrium -Constant Expression (pg. 815) | |
| 22-2. The Solubility of an Ionic Solid Decreases When a Common Ion Is Present in the Solution (pg. 821) | |
| 22-3. The Solubility of an Ionic Solid Is Increased by the Formation of a Soluble Complex Ion (pg. 823) | |
| 22-4. Salts of Weak Acids Are More Soluble in Acidic Solutions Than in Neutral or Basic Solutions (pg. 828) | |
| 22-5. The Relative Magnitudes of Qsp and Ksp Can Be Used to Predict Whether an Ionic Solid Can Precipitate (pg. 830) | |
| 22-6. It Is Often Possible to Separate One Compound from Another by Selective Precipitation (pg. 833) | |
| 22-7. Amphoteric Metal Hydroxides Dissolve in Both Highly Acidic and Highly Basic Solutions (pg. 835) | |
| 22-8. Qualitative Analysis Is the Identification of the Species Present in a Sample (pg. 838) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 845) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 845) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 845) | |
| 23. Chemical Thermodynamics (pg. 853) | |
| 23-1. Not All Spontaneous Reactions Evolve Energy (pg. 853) | |
| 23-2. The Second Law of Thermodynamics Places an Additional Restriction on Energy Transfers (pg. 856) | |
| 23-3. Entropy May Be Considered as a Measure of the Amount of Disorder or Randomness in a System (pg. 860) | |
| 23-4. Molar Entropy Depends upon Molar Mass and Molecular Structure (pg. 865) | |
| 23-5. DS°rxn Equals the Standard Entropy of the Products Minus the Standard Entropy of the Reactants (pg. 868) | |
| 23-6. The Sign of DGrxn Determines Reaction Spontaneity (pg. 869) | |
| 23-7. The Reaction Quotient, Equilibrium Constant, and DG°rxn Are Related (pg. 873) | |
| 23-8. The Values of DGrxn and DG°rxn Are Related (pg. 875) | |
| 23-9. DG°rxn Values and Equilibrium Constants Can Be Calculated from Tabulated DG°f Values (pg. 880) | |
| 23-10. The van’t Hoff Equation Governs the Temperature Dependence of Equilibrium Constants (pg. 883) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 887) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 888) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 889) | |
| 24. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (pg. 899) | |
| 24-1. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Involve the Transfer of Electrons Between Species (pg. 899) | |
| 24-2. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Involve the Transfer of Electrons from One Reactant to Another (pg. 906) | |
| 24-3. Electron-Transfer Reactions Can Be Separated into Two Half Reactions (pg. 908) | |
| 24-4. Equations for Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Can Be Balanced by Balancing Each Half Reaction Separately (pg. 909) | |
| 24-5. Chemical Equations for Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Occurring in Basic Solution Are Balanced Using OH– and H2O (pg. 914) | |
| 24-6. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Are Used in Chemical Analysis (pg. 917) | |
| 24-7. Billions of Dollars Are Spent Each Year to Protect Metals from Corrosion (pg. 920) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 923) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 923) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 923) | |
| 25. Electrochemistry (pg. 931) | |
| 25-1. Chemical Reactions Can Occur as a Result of the Passage of an Electric Current Through a Solution (pg. 931) | |
| 25-2. An Electrochemical Cell Produces Electricity Directly from a Chemical Reaction (pg. 934) | |
| 25-3. A Cell Diagram Is Used to Represent an Electrochemical Cell (pg. 938) | |
| 25-4. The Nernst Equation Can Be Used to Determine the Cell Voltage for a Stated Reaction (pg. 941) | |
| 25-5. E°red Values Can Be Assigned to Half-Reaction Equations (pg. 946) | |
| 25-6. Electrochemical Cells Can Be Used to Determine the Concentration of Ions (pg. 952) | |
| 25-7. The Electrical Energy Released from an Electrochemical Cell Can Do Useful Work (pg. 957) | |
| 25-8. Electrolysis Is Described Quantitatively by Faraday’s Laws (pg. 960) | |
| 25-9. Many Chemicals Are Prepared on an Industrial Scale by Electrolysis (pg. 964) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 968) | |
| EQUATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW HOW TO USE (pg. 968) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 969) | |
| 26. The Chemistry of the Transition Metals (pg. 979) | |
| 26-1. The Maximum Oxidation States of Scandium Through Manganese Are Equal to the Total Number of 4s and 3d Electrons (pg. 980) | |
| 26-2. The +6 Oxidation State of Chromium and the +7 Oxidation State of Manganese Are Strongly Oxidizing (pg. 984) | |
| 26-3. Iron Is Produced in a Blast Furnace (pg. 986) | |
| 26-4. The +2 Oxidation State Is the Most Important Oxidation State for Cobalt, Nickel, Copper, and Zinc (pg. 989) | |
| 26-5. Gold, Silver, and Mercury Have Been Known Since Ancient Times (pg. 992) | |
| 26-6. Each d-Block Transition Metal Ion Has a Characteristic Number of d Electrons (pg. 995) | |
| 26-7. Transition Metal Complexes Consist of Central Metal Atoms or Ions That Are Bonded to Ligands (pg. 997) | |
| 26-8. Transition Metal Complexes Have a Systematic Nomenclature (pg. 1000) | |
| 26-9. Polydentate Ligands Bind to More Than One Coordination Position Around the Metal Ion (pg. 1003) | |
| 26-10. Some Octahedral and Square Planar Transition Metal Complexes Can Exist in Isomeric Forms (pg. 1005) | |
| 26-11. The Five d Orbitals of a Transition Metal Ion in an Octahedral Complex Are Split into Two Groups by the Ligands (pg. 1008) | |
| 26-12. d-Orbital Electron Configuration Is the Key to Understanding Many Properties of the d-Block Transition Metal Ions (pg. 1013) | |
| 26-13. Ligands Can Be Ordered According to Their Ability to Split the Transition Metal d Orbitals (pg. 1015) | |
| TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW (pg. 1017) | |
| PROBLEMS (pg. 1017) | |
| Appendices (pg. 1022) | |
| APPENDIX A: A Mathematical Review (pg. 1022) | |
| APPENDIX B: SI Units and Conversion Factors (pg. 1036) | |
| APPENDIX C: Summary of IUPAC Nomenclature Rules (pg. 1040) | |
| APPENDIX D: Thermodynamic Data (pg. 1044) | |
| APPENDIX E: Data for Selected Acids and Bases (pg. 1050) | |
| APPENDIX F: Solubility of Ionic Compounds (pg. 1053) | |
| APPENDIX G: Standard Reduction Voltages for Aqueous Solutions at 25.0°C* (pg. 1055) | |
| APPENDIX H: World Chemical Production (pg. 1059) | |
| Appendix I: Answers to Selected Even-Numbered Problems (pg. 1061) | |
| PHOTO CREDITS (pg. 1084) | |
| INDEX (pg. 1088) | |
Donald A. McQuarrie
As the author of landmark chemistry books and textbooks, Donald McQuarrie's name is synonymous with excellence in chemical education. From his classic text on Statistical Mechanics to his recent quantum-first tour de force on Physical Chemistry, McQuarrie's best selling textbooks are highly acclaimed by the chemistry community. McQuarrie received his PhD from the University of Oregon, and is Professor Emeritus from the Department of Chemistry at the University of California, Davis.Ethan Gallogly
Ethan Gallogly earned his BS from the University of Connecticut and his PhD from the University of California, Davis. Following completion of his doctoral studies, Gallogly, who is bilingual, worked as a foreign expert in Mainland China. Afterward, he accepted a position at the University of California at Berkeley as a Chemistry Lecturer and Laboratory Coordinator for three years before joining the faculty of Santa Monica College in 1999. Most recently, Gallogly has been awarded a sabbatical to research fuel cell technology at Sichuan University.| Instructors Only | |
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