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Autonomous Robots
From Biological Inspiration to Implementation and Control
by Bekey
ISBN: 9780262292474 | Copyright 2005
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| Contents (pg. vii) | |
| Preface (pg. xiii) | |
| 1 Autonomy and Control in Animals and Robots (pg. 1) | |
| 1.1 What Is Autonomy? (pg. 1) | |
| 1.2 What Is a Robot? (pg. 2) | |
| 1.3 Problems of Robot Control (pg. 2) | |
| 1.4 Biologically Inspired Robot Control (pg. 7) | |
| 1.5 Sensors (pg. 10) | |
| 1.6 Actuators (pg. 12) | |
| 1.7 Intelligence (pg. 12) | |
| 1.8 A Brief Survey of Current Robots and Associated Control Issues (pg. 13) | |
| 1.8.1 Industrial Manipulators (pg. 14) | |
| 1.8.2 A Pioneer Mobile Robot (pg. 15) | |
| 1.8.3 TITAN Quadrupeds (pg. 16) | |
| 1.8.4 Khepera Mobile Robot (pg. 18) | |
| 1.8.5 Snake Robots (pg. 18) | |
| 1.8.6 A Robot Helicopter (pg. 19) | |
| 1.8.7 Roomba, a Household Robot (pg. 22) | |
| 1.8.8 AIBO, an Entertainment Robot (pg. 22) | |
| 1.8.9 ASIMO, a Biped Walker (pg. 23) | |
| 1.8.10 Cog (pg. 24) | |
| 1.9 Concluding Remarks and Organization of the Book (pg. 25) | |
| 2 Control and Regulation in Biological Systems (pg. 27) | |
| 2.1 Homeostasis (pg. 27) | |
| 2.2 Engineering and Biological Control Systems (pg. 29) | |
| 2.2.1 Reference Values (pg. 30) | |
| 2.2.2 Comparator and Negative Sign (pg. 30) | |
| 2.2.3 Sensors (pg. 31) | |
| 2.2.4 Actuators (pg. 31) | |
| 2.2.5 Adaptivity (pg. 31) | |
| 2.2.6 Control Redundancy (pg. 32) | |
| 2.2.7 Multipurpose Controllers (pg. 32) | |
| 2.3 Multiple Levels of Control: Control Architecture (pg. 33) | |
| 2.4 Other Biological Control Systems (pg. 34) | |
| 2.4.1 Control of Body Temperature (pg. 34) | |
| 2.4.2 Control of Skeletal Muscles and the Stretch Reflex (pg. 36) | |
| 2.5 Nonlinearities in Biological Control Systems (pg. 38) | |
| 2.5.1 The van der Pol Equation (pg. 40) | |
| 2.6 Cost Functions (pg. 42) | |
| 2.7 Control of Functional Motions in Humans (pg. 43) | |
| 2.8 Relevance to Robot Control (pg. 43) | |
| 2.9 Historical Background (pg. 44) | |
| 3 Fundamental Structural Elements (pg. 45) | |
| 3.1 The Structural Elements (pg. 45) | |
| 3.2 Actuators for Robots (pg. 47) | |
| 3.2.1 Electric Motors (pg. 49) | |
| 3.2.2 Artificial Muscles: McKibben Type (pg. 51) | |
| 3.2.3 Artificial Muscles: Shape Memory Alloys (pg. 52) | |
| 3.2.4 Artificial Muscles: Electroactive Polymers (pg. 54) | |
| 3.2.5 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuators (pg. 55) | |
| 3.2.6 Electromagnetic Actuators (pg. 56) | |
| 3.2.7 Stepper Motors (pg. 56) | |
| 3.2.8 Other Actuators (pg. 57) | |
| 3.2.9 Linkages (pg. 57) | |
| 3.3 Sensors for Robots (pg. 57) | |
| 3.3.1 Proprioceptive Sensing (pg. 58) | |
| 3.3.2 Exteroceptive Sensing (pg. 63) | |
| 3.4 Localization (pg. 68) | |
| 3.5 Computation and Communication (pg. 68) | |
| 4 Low-Level Robot Control (pg. 71) | |
| 4.1 Engineering Control: An Intuitive Introduction to Its Advantages and Limitations (pg. 71) | |
| 4.2 Robot Controller Design Principles (pg. 76) | |
| 4.2.1 Design of a Closed-Loop Position Control System for a Robot (pg. 76) | |
| 4.2.2 PID Controllers (pg. 78) | |
| 4.3 Control of Multilink Structures (pg. 79) | |
| 4.4 State Space Approach: Theory, Advantages, and Limitations (pg. 82) | |
| 4.5 Nonlinear Robot Control (pg. 85) | |
| 4.5.1 Linearization (pg. 85) | |
| 4.5.2 Special Methods for Second-Order Systems (pg. 88) | |
| 4.6 Adaptive Control and Other Approaches (pg. 88) | |
| 4.7 Model-Free Approaches to Control (pg. 91) | |
| 4.8 Uncertainty in Control System Design (pg. 92) | |
| 4.9 Biologically Inspired Control: Basic Principles (pg. 93) | |
| 5 Software Architectures for Autonomous Robots (pg. 97) | |
| 5.1 What Is a Robot Architecture? (pg. 97) | |
| 5.2 Where Does Control Fit into Robot Software? (pg. 98) | |
| 5.3 A Brief History (pg. 99) | |
| 5.4 Hierarchical and Deliberative Architectures (pg. 100) | |
| 5.5 Reactive and Behavior-Based Architectures (pg. 104) | |
| 5.6 Hybrid Reactive-Deliberative Architectures (pg. 107) | |
| 5.7 Major Features of Hybrid Architectures (pg. 110) | |
| 5.7.1 Robot Hardware Abstraction (pg. 110) | |
| 5.7.2 Extensibility and Scalability (pg. 110) | |
| 5.7.3 Run Time Overhead (pg. 111) | |
| 5.7.4 Actuator Control Model (pg. 112) | |
| 5.7.5 Software Characteristics (pg. 112) | |
| 5.7.6 Tools and Methods (pg. 112) | |
| 5.7.7 Documentation (pg. 112) | |
| 5.8 Case Study 5.1: The Tropism-Based Architecture (pg. 113) | |
| 5.9 Case Study 5.2: The USC AVATAR Architecture for Autonomous Helicopter Control (pg. 117) | |
| 5.9.1 Behavior-Based Control System Architecture (pg. 118) | |
| 5.9.2 Teaching by Showing: Architecture of Individual Controllers (pg. 120) | |
| 5.10 Open Architectures in Robotics (pg. 121) | |
| 5.11 Concluding Remarks (pg. 122) | |
| 6 Robot Learning (pg. 125) | |
| 6.1 The Nature of Robot Learning (pg. 125) | |
| 6.2 Learning and Control (pg. 126) | |
| 6.3 General Issues in Learning by Robotic Systems (pg. 128) | |
| 6.4 Reinforcement Learning (pg. 129) | |
| 6.5 Q-Learning (pg. 134) | |
| 6.6 Case Study 6.1: Learning to Avoid Obstacles Using Reinforcement Learning (pg. 135) | |
| 6.6.1 The Robot and Its Task (pg. 135) | |
| 6.6.2 The Network Model for Action Selection (pg. 136) | |
| 6.6.3 Reinforcement Learning (pg. 138) | |
| 6.7 Learning Using Neural Networks (pg. 140) | |
| 6.7.1 Biological Basis (pg. 140) | |
| 6.7.2 Computational Neurons and Perceptron Learning (pg. 142) | |
| 6.7.3 Learning in Multilayer Feedforward Networks (pg. 146) | |
| 6.7.4 Representation of Individual Neurons (pg. 148) | |
| 6.8 Case Study 6.2: Learning How to Grasp Objects of Different Shapes (pg. 149) | |
| 6.9 Evolutionary Algorithms (pg. 153) | |
| 6.9.1 Selection and Reproduction (pg. 154) | |
| 6.10 Case Study 6.3: Learning to Walk Using Genetic Algorithms (pg. 156) | |
| 6.10.1 Applicable Software (pg. 157) | |
| 6.10.2 The Neural Model for Leg Movement (pg. 158) | |
| 6.10.3 The Genetic Algorithm (pg. 161) | |
| 6.10.4 Fitness Function for Evolving Oscillator Parameters (pg. 162) | |
| 6.10.5 Fitness Function for Walking (pg. 163) | |
| 6.10.6 Conclusion (pg. 165) | |
| 6.11 Case Study 6.4: Learning in the Tropism Architecture (pg. 165) | |
| 6.11.1 Ontogenetic Learning (pg. 165) | |
| 6.11.2 Phylogenetic Learning (pg. 168) | |
| 6.11.3 Results (pg. 171) | |
| 6.11.4 Conclusion (pg. 173) | |
| 6.12 Learning by Imitation (pg. 175) | |
| 6.12.1 Mirror Neurons and the Neurophysiology of Imitation (pg. 175) | |
| 6.12.2 Levels of Imitation (pg. 176) | |
| 6.12.3 Learning Movement Sequences from Demonstration (pg. 177) | |
| 6.12.4 Developmental Approach to Imitation Learning (pg. 179) | |
| 6.12.5 High-Level Learning from Demonstration (pg. 180) | |
| 6.12.6 Other Experiments in Learning by Imitation (pg. 183) | |
| 6.13 Whither Robot Learning? (pg. 184) | |
| 7 Robot Locomotion: An Overview (pg. 185) | |
| 7.1 Animal Locomotion (pg. 185) | |
| 7.2 Wheeled Vehicles (pg. 186) | |
| 7.2.1 ATRV Four-Wheeled Robots (pg. 187) | |
| 7.2.2 Koala Six-Wheeled Robots (pg. 188) | |
| 7.2.3 Other Wheeled Robots (pg. 188) | |
| 7.2.4 JPL Rovers (pg. 190) | |
| 7.2.5 Summary of Wheeled Robots (pg. 191) | |
| 7.2.6 Control Issues (pg. 193) | |
| 7.3 Tracked Vehicles (pg. 197) | |
| 7.4 Legged Robots (pg. 199) | |
| 7.5 Hopping Robots (pg. 200) | |
| 7.6 Serpentine (Snake) Robots (pg. 203) | |
| 7.6.1 Robot Snakes from Shigeo Hirose (pg. 203) | |
| 7.6.2 Other Snake Robots (pg. 205) | |
| 7.7 Underwater Robotic Vehicles (pg. 209) | |
| 7.7.1 Dynamics (pg. 210) | |
| 7.7.2 Control (pg. 212) | |
| 7.7.3 Other Subsystems (pg. 212) | |
| 7.7.4 Example 1: ODIN (pg. 212) | |
| 7.7.5 Example 2: AUSS (pg. 213) | |
| 7.7.6 Example 3: ROMEO (pg. 214) | |
| 7.7.7 Example 4: OTTER (pg. 214) | |
| 7.7.8 Limited-Task AUVs (pg. 216) | |
| 7.7.9 Summary (pg. 217) | |
| 7.8 Biologically Inspired Underwater Robots (pg. 217) | |
| 7.8.1 The MIT RoboTuna1 and RoboPike (pg. 219) | |
| 7.8.2 The Draper Laboratory Tuna Robot (pg. 221) | |
| 7.8.3 The Mitsubishi Robotic Fishes (pg. 221) | |
| 7.8.4 Other Biomimetic Underwater Robots (pg. 222) | |
| 7.9 Climbing and Other Unusual Locomotion Methods (pg. 225) | |
| 7.9.1 Climbing Robots (pg. 225) | |
| 7.9.2 Brachiating Robots (pg. 231) | |
| 7.10 Flying Robots (pg. 232) | |
| 7.10.1 Fixed-Wing UAVs (pg. 232) | |
| 7.10.2 Micro-UAVs (pg. 233) | |
| 7.10.3 Rotary-Wing UAVs (pg. 237) | |
| 7.10.4 Biologically Inspired Flying Robots (pg. 244) | |
| 7.11 Self-Reconfigurable Robots (pg. 245) | |
| 7.12 Concluding Remarks (pg. 251) | |
| 8 Biped Locomotion (pg. 253) | |
| 8.1 Standing and Walking on Two Legs (pg. 253) | |
| 8.2 The Nature of Human Walking (pg. 254) | |
| 8.3 Musculoskeletal Dynamics (pg. 256) | |
| 8.4 Control of Human Locomotion (pg. 258) | |
| 8.5 Robotic Models of Biped Locomotion (pg. 262) | |
| 8.5.1 The Biped Robot Stability Problem (pg. 262) | |
| 8.5.2 Control of Leg Movements during Walking (pg. 263) | |
| 8.6 Some Biped Robots (pg. 263) | |
| 8.6.1 Early Biped Robots (pg. 263) | |
| 8.6.2 Raibert’s Monopod and Bipeds (pg. 265) | |
| 8.6.3 Walking Legs (pg. 268) | |
| 8.6.4 Other Japanese Biped Robots (pg. 270) | |
| 8.6.5 Pratt’s M-2 Headless Robot with Series-Elastic Actuators (pg. 270) | |
| 8.6.6 Other Walking Biped Projects (pg. 273) | |
| 8.7 Mathematical Models of Biped Kinematics and Dynamics (pg. 274) | |
| 8.8 Modeling Compensatory Trunk Movements While Walking (pg. 276) | |
| 8.9 Mechanical Aids to Human Walking (pg. 277) | |
| 8.9.1 Above-Knee Prostheses (pg. 278) | |
| 8.9.2 Intelligent, Sensor-Based Above-Knee Prostheses (pg. 279) | |
| 8.9.3 Reflex-Controlled Orthoses (pg. 282) | |
| 8.10 Concluding Remarks (pg. 283) | |
| 9 Locomotion in Animals and Robots with Four, Six, and Eight Legs (pg. 285) | |
| 9.1 Introduction to Legged Locomotion in Animals (pg. 285) | |
| 9.2 Neural Control of Locomotion (pg. 286) | |
| 9.3 Walking Multilegged Robots (pg. 287) | |
| 9.4 Six-Legged Walking Machines (pg. 289) | |
| 9.4.1 Insect Locomotion (pg. 291) | |
| 9.4.2 The Case Western Cockroaches and Their Control (pg. 291) | |
| 9.4.3 Genghis (pg. 294) | |
| 9.4.4 Rodney (pg. 296) | |
| 9.4.5 Walking-Stick Insect Models (pg. 296) | |
| 9.4.6 Ambler, a Very Large Hexapod (pg. 298) | |
| 9.4.7 RHex, a Fast, Biologically Inspired Hexapod (pg. 299) | |
| 9.4.8 The Sprawl Family of Hand-Sized, Fast Hexapods (pg. 300) | |
| 9.4.9 Final Comments on Hexapods (pg. 302) | |
| 9.5 Locomotion in Four-Legged Animals (pg. 303) | |
| 9.6 Four-Legged Walking Machines (pg. 304) | |
| 9.6.1 The Phony Pony (pg. 305) | |
| 9.6.2 Raibert’s Quadrupeds (pg. 307) | |
| 9.6.3 The TITAN Robots (pg. 307) | |
| 9.6.4 The Scout II, a Simple Quadruped Designed for Bounding (pg. 312) | |
| 9.6.5 Other Research Quadrupeds (pg. 315) | |
| 9.6.6 AIBO and Other Toy Robots (pg. 318) | |
| 9.6.7 Stability and Control (pg. 318) | |
| 9.7 Finite-State Models of Legged Locomotion (pg. 321) | |
| 9.8 Case Study 9.1: Control and Stability in the Quadruped Meno (pg. 323) | |
| 9.8.1 Stability and Control (pg. 325) | |
| 9.8.2 Navigation (pg. 327) | |
| 9.8.3 Results (pg. 327) | |
| 9.9 Eight-Legged Walking Machines (pg. 327) | |
| 9.9.1 Dante (pg. 328) | |
| 9.9.2 The Robot Lobster (pg. 330) | |
| 9.9.3 Other Eight-Legged Robots (pg. 330) | |
| 9.10 Concluding Remarks (pg. 332) | |
| 10 Arm Motion and Manipulation (pg. 333) | |
| 10.1 Human Arms and Robot Arms (pg. 333) | |
| 10.2 Control of Arm Motion in Humans (pg. 335) | |
| 10.2.1 Structure and Movement (pg. 335) | |
| 10.2.2 Control (pg. 337) | |
| 10.3 Robot Manipulators (pg. 338) | |
| 10.3.1 Manipulator Structures (pg. 339) | |
| 10.3.2 Sensors (pg. 340) | |
| 10.3.3 Power and Control (pg. 340) | |
| 10.3.4 Coordinate Frames and Transformations (pg. 340) | |
| 10.4 Some Typical Robot Arms (pg. 341) | |
| 10.4.1 The KUKA KR 16 Multipurpose Industrial Robot (pg. 341) | |
| 10.4.2 The Gripper on the Khepera Mobile Robot (pg. 342) | |
| 10.4.3 Arms and Grippers on ActivMedia Research Robots (pg. 343) | |
| 10.4.4 Arms on Humanoid Robots (pg. 344) | |
| 10.4.5 Other Manipulators (pg. 347) | |
| 10.5 Forward Kinematics of Manipulators (pg. 347) | |
| 10.6 Inverse Kinematics (pg. 348) | |
| 10.7 Dynamics (pg. 350) | |
| 10.8 Manipulator Control (pg. 351) | |
| 10.9 Alternative Approaches to Manipulator Control (pg. 352) | |
| 10.9.1 Neural Networks for Inverse Kinematics (pg. 353) | |
| 10.9.2 Inverse Dynamics (pg. 354) | |
| 10.10 Arm Prosthetics and Orthotics (pg. 355) | |
| 10.10.1 Arm Prostheses (pg. 356) | |
| 10.10.2 Orthotic Arms (pg. 358) | |
| 10.11 Concluding Remarks (pg. 361) | |
| 11 Control of Grasping in Human and Robot Hands (pg. 363) | |
| 11.1 Introduction to Hands (pg. 363) | |
| 11.2 Reaching and Grasping (pg. 365) | |
| 11.3 Simple Robot End E¤ectors (pg. 368) | |
| 11.4 Multifingered Robot Hands (pg. 371) | |
| 11.4.1 General Considerations (pg. 372) | |
| 11.4.2 Sensors (pg. 373) | |
| 11.4.3 Examples of Robot Hands (pg. 375) | |
| 11.5 Case Study 11.1: The Belgrade-USC Hand (pg. 378) | |
| 11.5.1 Hardware (pg. 381) | |
| 11.5.2 Sensors (pg. 383) | |
| 11.5.3 Control System Architecture (pg. 383) | |
| 11.6 Prosthetic Hands (pg. 385) | |
| 11.6.1 The RSL Streeter MultiControl Prosthetic Hand (pg. 388) | |
| 11.6.2 The Otto Bock SensorHand (pg. 389) | |
| 11.6.3 Other Prosthetic Hands (pg. 390) | |
| 11.7 Concluding Remarks (pg. 390) | |
| 12 Control of Multiple Robots (pg. 391) | |
| 12.1 Principles and Problems of Multiple-Robot Systems (pg. 391) | |
| 12.2 Biological Inspiration: Sociobiology (pg. 393) | |
| 12.3 A Brief History of Multiple Robots (pg. 395) | |
| 12.4 Control Issues in Autonomous-Robot Colonies (pg. 399) | |
| 12.5 Case Study 12.1: Centralized Control of Very Simple Robots (pg. 400) | |
| 12.6 Some Multiple-Robot Architectures (pg. 402) | |
| 12.6.1 Mataric´’s ‘‘Nerd Herd’’ (pg. 402) | |
| 12.6.2 The MissionLab Architecture (pg. 404) | |
| 12.6.3 The ALLIANCE Architecture and the Problem of Cooperative Multirobot Observation of Multiple Moving Targets (CMOMMT) (pg. 407) | |
| 12.6.4 The Pheromone Architecture (pg. 411) | |
| 12.6.5 The Ranger-Scout Architecture (pg. 412) | |
| 12.7 Swarm and Cellular Robotics (pg. 412) | |
| 12.8 Communication among Multiple Robots (pg. 415) | |
| 12.8.1 Cooperation without Communication (pg. 416) | |
| 12.8.2 Communication among Embedded Robots (pg. 419) | |
| 12.9 Formation Control (pg. 420) | |
| 12.9.1 Formation Control Using Only Local Information (pg. 421) | |
| 12.9.2 Global Approaches to Formation Control (pg. 424) | |
| 12.9.3 Spacecraft Formation Architectures (pg. 425) | |
| 12.10 Robot Soccer (pg. 427) | |
| 12.11 Heterogeneous Robot Teams (pg. 429) | |
| 12.12 Task Assignment (pg. 431) | |
| 12.13 Design Issues in Multiple-Robot Systems (pg. 435) | |
| 12.13.1 Interrobot Communication (pg. 436) | |
| 12.13.2 Task Assignment and Specialization (pg. 436) | |
| 12.13.3 Hierarchy and Organization (pg. 437) | |
| 12.13.4 Reliability, Self-Repair, and Robustness (pg. 437) | |
| 12.13.5 Control Architectures (pg. 437) | |
| 12.13.6 Mutual Recognition (pg. 438) | |
| 12.13.7 Deployment (pg. 438) | |
| 12.13.8 Localization (pg. 438) | |
| 12.13.9 Formation Control (pg. 438) | |
| 12.13.10 Scalability (pg. 438) | |
| 12.14 Conclusions (pg. 439) | |
| 13 Humanoid Robots (pg. 441) | |
| 13.1 Introduction: Why Humanoids? (pg. 441) | |
| 13.1.1 Other Motivations for the Design of Humanoids (pg. 443) | |
| 13.1.2 Humanoid Dynamics and Stability (pg. 444) | |
| 13.2 Historical Background (pg. 444) | |
| 13.3 Full-Body Humanoids (pg. 448) | |
| 13.3.1 The Honda P-Series Robots (pg. 448) | |
| 13.3.2 ASIMO (pg. 449) | |
| 13.3.3 QRIO (The Sony Dream Robot) (pg. 450) | |
| 13.3.4 The Sarcos-Kawato Humanoid (pg. 453) | |
| 13.3.5 The Waseda University Humanoids (pg. 454) | |
| 13.3.6 PINO (pg. 455) | |
| 13.3.7 HOAP (pg. 456) | |
| 13.3.8 Other Humanoid Projects (pg. 457) | |
| 13.4 Interaction with Humans (pg. 457) | |
| 13.4.1 Minerva (pg. 459) | |
| 13.4.2 Hadaly (pg. 459) | |
| 13.4.3 Kismet (pg. 460) | |
| 13.4.4 Leonardo (pg. 461) | |
| 13.5 Special-Purpose Humanoids (pg. 463) | |
| 13.5.1 Robonaut (pg. 464) | |
| 13.5.2 Cog (pg. 465) | |
| 13.5.3 Other Special-Purpose, Partial-Body Humanoids (pg. 466) | |
| 13.6 Trends in Humanoid Research (pg. 471) | |
| 14 Localization, Navigation, and Mapping (pg. 473) | |
| 14.1 Overview (pg. 473) | |
| 14.2 Biological Inspiration (pg. 475) | |
| 14.2.1 Bird Navigation (pg. 475) | |
| 14.2.2 Insect Navigation (pg. 476) | |
| 14.2.3 Navigation in Other Animals and Humans (pg. 477) | |
| 14.3 Robot Navigation (pg. 478) | |
| 14.3.1 A Simplified Scenario (pg. 479) | |
| 14.3.2 Navigation by Dead Reckoning (pg. 480) | |
| 14.3.3 Inertial Navigation (pg. 482) | |
| 14.3.4 Combinations of Local and Global Strategies (pg. 482) | |
| 14.4 Mapping (pg. 483) | |
| 14.4.1 Metric Mapping (pg. 483) | |
| 14.4.2 Topological Mapping (pg. 487) | |
| 14.4.3 Combined Metric and Topological Mapping (pg. 488) | |
| 14.5 Case Study 14.1: Incremental Topological Mapping (pg. 488) | |
| 14.5.1 Landmark Detection (pg. 490) | |
| 14.5.2 Concurrent Localization and Mapping (pg. 490) | |
| 14.5.3 Experimental Evaluation (pg. 492) | |
| 14.6 Localization (pg. 494) | |
| 14.6.1 Localization Using Landmarks (Triangulation) (pg. 495) | |
| 14.6.2 Kalman Filter Basics (pg. 497) | |
| 14.6.3 Kalman Filter–Based Localization (pg. 502) | |
| 14.6.4 Other Probabilistic Approaches to Localization (pg. 503) | |
| 14.7 Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (pg. 504) | |
| 14.8 Multirobot Localization (pg. 504) | |
| 14.9 Concluding Remarks (pg. 507) | |
| 15 The Future of Autonomous Robots (pg. 509) | |
| 15.1 Introduction (pg. 509) | |
| 15.2 Current Trends in Robotics (pg. 510) | |
| 15.2.1 Entertainment (pg. 510) | |
| 15.2.2 Military Applications (pg. 510) | |
| 15.2.3 Household and Industrial Service Robots (pg. 511) | |
| 15.2.4 Care of the Elderly and People with Disabilities (pg. 511) | |
| 15.2.5 Construction and Heavy Industry (pg. 512) | |
| 15.3 Human-Robot Cooperation and Interaction (pg. 512) | |
| 15.3.1 The Three Es: Emotions, Esthetics, and Ethics (pg. 512) | |
| 15.4 Multirobot Systems (pg. 513) | |
| 15.5 Micro- and Nanorobots (pg. 513) | |
| 15.6 Reconfigurability (pg. 514) | |
| 15.7 The Implications of Computer Power (pg. 514) | |
| 15.8 Self-Organization, Self-Repair, Autonomous Evolution, and Self-Replication (pg. 515) | |
| 15.9 The Potential Dangers of Robotics (pg. 516) | |
| 15.10 Concluding Remarks (pg. 518) | |
| Appendix: Introduction to Linear Feedback Control Systems (pg. 519) | |
| A.1 Linear Control Systems in the Frequency Domain (pg. 519) | |
| A.2 The Transfer Function (pg. 522) | |
| A.3 Stability (pg. 526) | |
| A.4 Control System Design (pg. 529) | |
| References (pg. 531) | |
| Author Index (pg. 557) | |
| Subject Index (pg. 563) | |
George A. Bekey
George A. Bekey is Professor Emeritus in Computer Science at University of Southern California and Distinguished Professor of Engineering at California Polytechnic State University.
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